JDL Publication Honors John Paul II

From the Zenit News Agency:

Jewish Group’s Publication Honors John Paul II

Anti-Defamation League Marking 1st Anniversary of His Death

NEW YORK, MARCH 27, 2006 (Zenit.org).- The Anti-Defamation League has issued a new publication focusing on Pope John Paul II’s historic visit to Israel and the Middle East in 2000.

The publication aims to commemorate the first anniversary of the Polish Pope’s death and to honor his unique relationship to the Jewish people and Judaism, the ADL said in a statement.

“Pope John Paul II — Visit to Jordan, Israel and the Palestinian Authority: A Pilgrimage of Prayer, Hope and Reconciliation,” includes selected passages from the speeches and presentations made by the Holy Father during his Mideast visit, compiled and with commentary by Rabbi Leon Klenicki, ADL’s retired director of interfaith affairs.

Abraham Foxman, ADL national director, who wrote the introduction to the publication, said: “Pope John Paul II’s outreach to the Jewish community will remain an important part of his extraordinary legacy.”

“As a youth in Poland he related to Jews who were his friends and neighbors. As Pope, through his words and actions he condemned anti-Semitism as a sin, visited the Rome synagogue, a first ever for a Pontiff, prayed at Auschwitz for the Jews who died there at the hands of the Nazis, and established relations with the Jewish State of Israel.”

Rabbi Klenicki, an expert on and participant in Catholic-Jewish relations for many decades, said, “As no other Pope in history, John Paul II will forever be recognized as the Pilgrim of Peace and the Apostle of Reconciliation.

“His prayer at Judaism’s holiest site, the Western Wall, his visit to Yad Vashem to pay homage to the Jews who died in the Shoah, his meetings with the Chief Rabbis of Israel, Israeli officials and the Israeli people, were historic moments in his pilgrimage.”

Poles in America

By Michael Szporer

  • The first organization of American Poles was the Association of Poles in America (Stowarzyszenie Polak? w Ameryce) founded in 1830 by the veterans of Revolution of 1830 (November Uprising).
  • Jan of Kolono, a Polish sailor under the sponsorship of the King of Denmark reached the Labrador and explored the Atlantic coast as far as Delaware in 1475. The first known Polish settlers date to Jamestown, reaching the Virginia Colony 1607-08, at least twelve years before the Mayflower.
  • The early American Poles were artisans, responsible for the first strike in America. The occasion arose in 1619 when the House of Burgesses in Jamestown refused the right to vote to all those who were not of English stock. The Poles were accorded the same rights after a successful work stoppage. According to the Court Book of the Virginia Company of London on July 31, 1619, it was decided that “Upon some dispute of the Polonian residents in Virginia it was now agreed that they shall be enfranchised and made as free as any inhabitant there whatsoever.”
  • In Peter Stuyvesant’s New Holland (modern day New York), a Pole Dr. Alexander Charles Kurcyusz (Curtius) founded the first institution of higher learning in New York City in 1659.
  • While we all have heard of Thaddeus Kosciuszko’s and Casimir Pulaski’s contributions to the American Revolution, POLES IN AMERICA informs us that their friend Hayam Solomon, a Polish Jew, financially backed the American Revolution. John Zielinski, a relative of Pulaski, also fought and died in the siege of Savannah on September 25, 1779. There were other American patriots of Polish descent, Matthew Rogowski, Charles Litomski, and Michael Kowacz, the last killed in the Battle of Charleston, South Carolina on May 11, 1779.
  • Little known fact is that the last King of Poland Stanislaw August Poniatowski was friendly to the rebel Colonies and condemned the English system of “taxation without representation.” Early American poets Joel Barlow and David Humphreys celebrated the Polish King and the Polish Constitution, second in the world and modeled on the American.
  • Sandusky, Ohio, was named after James Anthony Sadowski, killed by the Indians in Virginia, whose sons, James and Joseph, distinguished themselves in the history of the state of Kentucky as companions of Daniel Boone. They were the first to enter the unknown lands. In 1774 the brothers sailed with about forty men down the Ohio and the Monongahela rivers and camped at the site of modern day Cincinnati, Ohio.
  • James Sadowski was the first white settler from the English colonies to have sailed the Mississippi to New Orleans, and from there to Baltimore. Another explorer Paul Mostowski of Warsaw in 1776 even wanted to found New Poland in what are today the southern states.
  • Ted Strawinski, an eighteen year old Polish student, was the first recorded victim of the Civil War, having perished during the attack on Fort Sumpter by the Confederate army. The first Union officer to fall on the field of battle was captain Constantine Biedowski on May 10, 1861.
  • President Abraham Lincoln’s proclamation called for 75,000 volunteers in Washington DC under General Vladimir Krzyzanowski, who distinguished himself in the battle of Bull Run; Krzyzanowski, one of the finest Union officers, was later honored by Congress and is regarded as the most distinguished Pole of the Civil War.
  • Others fought in the ranks of the Union. Major Raszkowski’s two Polish companies of the 31st New York state militia fought in Polish uniforms and Krzyzanowski’s the 58th was dubbed as the Polish Legion. Colonel Vincent Sulakowski from Texas organized an army of 30,000 exiles for the Confederacy but there were no funds available for transport.
  • During the Civil War, at least 5,000 Poles, one hundred and sixty officers among them, served in the Union army, along with General Victor Kochanowski who distinguished himself at the Battle of Gettysberg. Over 500 Poles died to preserve the Union and over 100 for the Confederacy.
  • The first American soldier to fall during the Great War (WWI) in France was a Polish American and, of course, the great Polish American musician and patriot Ignace Jan Padarewski was nominated by the chief of state Jozef Pilsudski as the first prime minister of independent Poland in 1918.

© mszporer, 2002 Used with permission.

Armia Krajowa – Polish Resistance in WW II

Did you know that the largest underground resistance army during World War II was the Polish Home Army?

The Home Army, 300,000 strong at its peak, is credited with supplying the Allies with constant intelligence information from the eastern front, providing information about the V-1 rocket in Peenemunde, secretly sending Britain a V-2 rocket, the sabotage and destruction of German supply trains and communication centers, providing Allies with reports on Nazi atrocities against the Jews, including first hand reports of the Holocaust, and providing armed assistance to Jewish fighters through its Zegota arm.

The Home Army carried out the war’s largest uprising (the Warsaw Uprising) which lasted 63 days. The German punishment for this effort was the total destruction of the city of Warsaw. After Soviet occupation these brave fighters, men and women, were hounded, often killed, or deported to Siberia.

The Polish Resistance in World War II website provides information and informative articles about this extraordinary saga of the 20th century. The site proves information in Polish, English and French.

Constitution of May 3, 1791

The end of the 18th century produced three constitutions considered the first modern constitutions in the World. The American Constitution of September 17, 1787 was the oldest. The second in the World and the first in Europe was the Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791 preceding the French September Constitution by several months.

The American Constitution was forged in the fire of the American War of Independence, the French one was produced by the Revolution, while the Polish Constitution bloomed from bloodless changes effected by forces striving to recover independence for their own state and sovereignty over their nation.

Konstytucja 3 Maja, 1791

Constitution of 3 May 1791

Preambuła

Oblatum de 5 Maii 1791
USTAWA RZĄDOWA
3 Maja 1791 r.

W imię Boga, w Trójcy Świętej jedynego. Stanisław August z Bożej laski i woli Narodu Król Polski, Wielki Książe Litewski, Ruski, Pruski, Mazowiecki, Żmudzki, Kijowski, Wołyński, Podolski, Podlaski, Inflancki, Smoleński, Siewierski i Czernichowski, wraz ze Stanami Skonfederowanymi, w liczbie podwójnej naród polski reprezentującymi.

Uznając, iż los nas wszystkich od ugruntowania i wydoskonalenia konstytucji narodowej jedynie zawisł, długim doświadczeniem poznawszy zadawnione rządu naszego wady, a chcąc korzystać z pory, w jakiej się Europa znajduje i z tej dogorywającej chwili, która nas samym sobie wróciła, wolni od hańbiących obcej przemocy nakazów, ceniąc drożej nad życie, nad szczęśliwość osobista, egzystencje polityczna, niepodległość zewnętrzna i wolność wewnętrzna narodu, którego los w ręce nasze jest powierzony, chcąc oraz na błogosławientstwo, na wdzięczność współczesnych i przyszłych pokoleń zasłużyć, mimo przeszkód, które w nas namiętności sprawować mogą dla dobra powszechnego, dla ugruntowania wolności, dla ocalenia Ojczyzny naszej i jej granic z największa stałością ducha, niniejsza konstytucje uchwalamy i te całkowicie za święta, za niewzruszona deklarujemy, dopóki by
naród w czasie prawem przepisanym, wyraźna wola swoja nie uznał potrzeby odmienienia w niej jakiego artykułu. Do której to konstytucji dalsze ustawy sejmu teraźniejszego we wszystkim stosować się maja.

Preamble

Oblatum de 5 Maii 1791
GOVERNMENT STATUTE
May 3, 1791

In the name of God, One in the Holy Trinity. Stanislaw August, by the grace of God and the will of the people King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, Ruthenia, Prussia, Mazowsze, Zmudz [Samogitia], Kiev, Wolyn, Podole, Podlasie, Livonia, Smolensk, Sever and Czernihov; together with the confederated estates in dual number representing the Polish people.

Recognizing that the destiny of us all depends solely upon the establishment and perfection of a national constitution, having by long experience learned the inveterate faults of our government, and desiring to take advantage of the season in which Europe finds itself and of this dying moment that has restored us to ourselves, free of the ignominious dictates of foreign coercion, holding dearer than life, than personal happiness the political existence, external independence and internal liberty of the people whose destiny is entrusted to our hands, desiring as well to merit the blessing and gratitude of contemporary and future generations, despite obstacles that may cause passion in us, do for the general welfare, for the establishment of liberty, for the preservation of our country and its borders, with the utmost constancy of spirit ordain the present constitution and declare it to be entirely sacred and inviolable until the people, at the time by law prescribe, by their clear will recognize a need to alter it in any of its articles. To which constitution the further statutes of the present seym shall apply in everything.

I. RELIGIA PANUJĄCA

Religia narodowa panująca jest i będzie wiara święta rzymska katolicka ze wszystkimi jej prawami; przejście od wiary panującej do jakiegokolwiek wyznania jest zabronione pod karami apostazji. Ze zaś taż sama wiara święta przykazuje nam kochać bliźnich naszych, przeto wszystkim ludziom jakiegokolwiek bądź wyznania, pokój w wierze i opiekę rządowa winniśmy i dlatego wszelkich obrządków i religii wolność w krajach polskich, podług ustaw krajowych warujemy.

I. The Dominant Religion

The dominant national religion is and shall be the sacred Roman Catholic faith with all its laws. Passage from the dominant religion to any other confession is forbidden under penalties of apostasy. Inasmuch as the same holy faith bids us love our neighbors, we owe to all persons, of whatever persuasion, peace in their faith and the protection of the government, and therefore we guarantee freedom to all rites and religions in the Polish lands, in accordance with the laws of the land.

II. SZLACHTA ZIEMIANIE

Szanują pamięć przodków naszych jako fundatorów rządu wolnego, stanowi szlacheckiemu wszystkie swobody, wolności, prerogatywy pierwszeństwa w życiu prywatnym i publicznym najuroczysciej zapewniamy, szczególniej zaś prawa, statua i przywileje temu stanowi od Kazimierza Wielkiego, Ludwika Węgierskiego, Władysława Jagiełły i Witolda brata jego, Wielkiego księcia litewskiego, nie mniej od Władysława i Kazimierza Jagiellonczyków, od Jana Alberta, Aleksandra i Zygmunta Pierwszego braci, od Zygmunta Augusta, ostatniego z linii jagiellońskiej, sprawiedliwie i prawnie nadane, utwierdzamy, zapewniamy i za niewzruszone uznajemy. Godność stanu szlacheckiemu w Polszczę za równa wszelkim stopniom szlachectwa gdziekolwiek używanym przyznajemy. Wszystka szlachtę równymi być miedzy sobą uznajemy, nie tylko co do starania się o urzędy i o sprawowanie posług Ojczyźnie, honor, sławę, pożytek przynoszących, ale oraz co do równego używania przywilejów i prerogatyw stanowi szlacheckiemu służących. Nade wszystko zaś prawa bezpieczeństwa osobistego, wolności osobistej i własności gruntowej i ruchomej tak, jak od wieków każdemu służyły, świątobliwie, nienaruszenie zachowane miec chcemy i zachowujemy; zaręczając najuroczysciej, iż przeciwko własności czyjejkolwiek żadnej odmiany lub ekscerpcji w prawie niedopuscimy, owszem najwyższa władza krajowa i rząd przez nią ustanowiony, żadnych pretensji pod pretekstem iurium regalium i jakimkolwiek innym pozorem do własności obywatelskich bądź w części, bądź w całości rościć sobie nie będzie. Dlatego bezpieczeństwo osobiste i wszelka własność, komukolwiek z prawa przynależna, jako prawdziwy społeczności węzeł, jako źrenice wolności obywatelskiej szanujemy, zabezpieczamy, utwierdzamy i aby na potomne czasy szanowane, ubezpieczone i nienaruszone zostawały, mięć chcemy.

Szlachtę za najpierwszych obrońców wolności i niniejszej konstytucji uznajemy. Każdego szlachcica cnocie, obywatelstwu i honorowi jej świętość do szanowania, jej trwałość do strzeżenia poruczamy jako jedyna twierdze Ojczyzny i swobód naszych.

II. The Landed Nobility

Reverencing the memory of our ancestors as the founders of a free government, we most solemnly assure to the noble estate all liberties, freedoms, and prerogatives of precedence in private and public life, and more particularly we confirm, assure and recognize as inviolable the rights, statutes and privileges justly and lawfully granted to that estate by Kazimierz the Great, Louis the Hungarian, Władyslaw Jagiełło and his brother Witold, Grand Duke of Lithuania, and no less those by Wladysław the Jagiellonian and Kazimierz the Jagiellonian, by Jan Albert, the brothers Alexander and Zygmunt the First, and by Zygmunt August, the last of the Jagiellonian line. We acknowledge the dignity of the noble estate in Poland as equal to any degree of nobility used anywhere. We recognize all the nobility to be equal among themselves, not only in seeking for offices and for the discharge of services to the country that bring honor, fame or profit, but also in the equal enjoyment of the privileges and prerogatives to which the noble estate is entitled. Above all, we desire to preserve and do preserve sacred and intact the rights to personal security, to personal liberty, and to property, landed and movable, even as they have been the tide of all from time immemorial; affirming most solemnly that we shall permit no change or exception in law against anyone’s property, and that the supreme national authority and the government instituted by it shall lay no claims to any citizen’s property in part or in whole under pretext of jurium regalium (royal rights) or any other pretext whatever. Wherefore we do respect, assure and confer the personal security of, and all property by rights belonging to, anyone, as the true bond of society, as the pupil of civil liberty, and we desire that they remain respected, ensured and inviolate for all time to come.

We recognize the nobility as the foremost defenders of liberty and of the present constitution. We charge unto the virtue, citizenship and honor of every nobleman the reverence of its sanctity and the safeguarding of its durability, as the sole bulwark of the country and of our liberties.

III. MIASTA I MIESZCZANIE

Prawo na teraźniejszym Sejmie zapadle pod tytułem: Miasta Nasze Królewskie wolne w państwach Rzeczypospolitej w zupełności utrzymane miec chcemy i za cześć niniejszej konstytucji deklarujemy, jako prawo wolnej szlachcie polskiej, dla bezpieczeństwa ich swobód i całości wspólnej Ojczyzny nowa, prawdziwa i skuteczna dające sile.

III. The Cities And Their Citizens

We desire to maintain in its entirety, and declare to be part of the present constitution, the law passed at the present seym under the title, “Our free Royal Cities in the states of the Republic,” as a law that provides new, genuine and effective force to the free Polish nobility for the security of their liberties and the integrity of our common country.

IV. CHŁOPI WŁOŚCIANIE

Lud rolniczy, z pod którego ręki płynie najobfitsze bogactw krajowych źródło, który najliczniejsza w narodzie stanowi ludność, a zatem najdzielniejsza kraju sile, tak przez sprawiedliwość, ludzkość i obowiązki chrześcijańskie, jako i przez własny nasz interes dobrze zrozumiany, pod opiekę prawa i rządu krajowego przyjmujemy, stanowiąc: iż odtąd jakiebykolwiek swobody, nadania, lub umowy dziedzice z włościanami dóbr swoich autentycznie ułożyli, czyli by te swobody, nadania i umowy były z gromadami, czyli tez z każdym osobno wsi mieszkańcem zrobione, będą stanowić wspólny i wzajemny obowiązek, podług rzetelnego znaczenia warunków i opisu zawartego w takowych nadaniach i umowach, pod opiekę rządu krajowego podpadający. Układy takowe i wynikające z nich obowiązki, przez jednego właściciela gruntu dobrowolnie przyjęte, nietylko jego samego, ale i następców jego, lub prawa nabywców tak wiążąc będą, iż ich nigdy samowolnie odmieniać nie będą mocni. Nawzajem włościanie jakiejkolwiek bądź majętności od dobrowolnych umów, przyjętych nadań i z nimi złączonych powinności usuwać się inaczej nie będą mogli, tylko w takim sposobie i z takimi warunkami, jak w opisach tychże umów postanowione mieli, które czy na wieczność, czyli do czasu przyjęte ściśle ich obowiązywać będą. Zawarowawszy tym sposobem dziedziców przy wszelkich pożytkach od włościan im należących, a chcąc jak najskuteczniej zachęcić pomnożenie ludności krajowej, ogłaszamy wolność zupełna dla wszystkich ludzi tak nowo przybywających, jako i tych, którzy by, pierwej z kraju oddaliwszy się, teraz do Ojczyzny powrócić chcieli, tak dalece, iż każdy człowiek do państw Rzeczypospolitej nowo z którejkolwiek strony przybyły lub powracający, jak tylko stanie noga na ziemi polskiej, wolnym jest zupełnie użyć przemysłu swego jak i gdzie chce, wolny jest czynić umowy na osiadłość, robociznę lub czynsze, jak i dopóki się umówi, wolny jest osiadać w mieście lub na wsiach, wolny jest mieszkać w Polszczę, lub do kraju, do którego zechce, powrócić, uczyniwszy zadosyc obowiązkom, które dobrowolnie na siebie przyjął.

IV. The Peasants

Both from justice, humanity and Christian duty, as from our own self-interest properly understood, we accept under the protection of the law and of the national government the agricultural folk, from under whose hand flows the most copious source of the country’s wealth, and who constitute the most numerous populace in the nation and hence the greatest strength of the country, and we determine that henceforth whatever liberties, assignments or agreements squires authentically agree to with peasants of their estates, whether those liberties, assignment and agreements be done with groups or with individual inhabitants of a village, shall constitute a mutual obligation, in accordance with the true sense of the conditions and provisions contained in such assignments and agreements, subject to the protection of the national government. Such agreements and the obligations proceeding there from, freely accepted by a landowner, shall so bind not only him but also his successors or purchasers of the right, that they shall never arbitrarily alter them. Likewise peasants, of whatever estate, shall not withdraw from agreements freely entered into, or from assignments accepted, or from duties therewith connected, except in such manner and with such conditions as stipulated in the provisions of said agreement, which, whether adopted in perpetuity or for a limited time, shall be strictly binding upon them. Having thus guaranteed squires in all profits due them from the peasants, and desiring as effectively as possible to encourage the multiplication of the people, we declare complete freedom to all persons, both those newly arriving and those who, having removed from the country, now desire to return to their native land, insofar as every person newly arrived from any part, or returning, to the states of the Republic, as soon as he set foot upon Polish soil is completely free to use his industry as and where he will, is free to make agreements for settlement, wages or rents as and to such time as he agree, is free to settle in city or countryside, and is free to reside in Poland or to return to whichever country he wish; having previously acquitted such obligations as he had freely taken upon himself.

V. RZĄD, CZYLI OZNACZENIE WŁADZ PUBLICZNYCH

Wszelka władza społeczności ludzkiej początek swój bierze z woli narodu. Aby wiec całość państw, wolność obywatelska i porządek społeczności w równej wadze na zawsze zostawały, trzy władze rząd narodu polskiego składać powinny i z woli prawa niniejszego na zawsze składać będą, to jest: władza prawodawcza w Stanach zgromadzonych, władza najwyższa wykonawcza w królu i Straży, i władza sadownicza w jurysdykcjach, na ten koniec ustanowionych, lub ustanowić się mających.

V. The Government, Or Designation Of Public Authorities

All authority in human society takes its origin in the will of the people. Therefore, that the integrity of the states, civil liberty, and social order remain forever in equal balance, the government of the Polish nation ought to, and by the will of the present law forever shall, comprise three authorities, to wit, a legislative authority in the assembled estates, a supreme executive authority in a king and guardianship, and a judicial authority in jurisdictions to that end instituted or to be instituted.

VI. SEJM CZYLI WŁADZA PRAWODAWCZA

Sejm czyli Stany zgromadzone na dwie Izby dzielić się będą: na Izbę Poselska i na Izbę Senatorska pod prezydencja Króla.

Izba Poselska, jako wyobrażenie i skład wszechwładztwa narodowego, będzie świątynia prawodawstwa. Przeto w Izbie Poselskiej najpierwej decydowanie będą wszystkie projeka.

1. Co do praw ogólnych, to jest: konstytucyjnych, cywilnych, kryminalnych i do ustanowienia wieczystych podatków, w których to materjach propozycje od tronu województwom, ziemiom i powiatom do roztrzasnienia podane, a przez instrukcje do Izby przychodzące, najpierwsze do decyzji wzięte być maja.

2. Co do uchwal sejmowych, to jest poborów doczesnych, stopnia monety, zaciągania długu publicznego, nobilitacji i innych nadgrod przypadkowych, rozkładu wydatków publicznych ordynaryjnych i ekstraordynaryjnych, wojny, pokoju, ostatecznej ratyfikacji traktatów związkowych i handlowych, wszelkich dyplomatycznych aktów i umów, do prawa narodów ściągających się, kwitowania magistratur wykonawczych i tym podobnych zdarzeń, głównym narodowym potrzebom odpowiadających, w których to materiach propozycje od tronu, prosto do Izby Poselskiej przychodzić mające, pierwszeństwo w prowadzeniu mięć będą.

Izby Senatorskiej, złożonej z biskupów, wojewodów, kasztelanów i ministrów, pod prezydencya króla, mającego prawo raz dac votum swoje, drugi raz paritatem rozwiązywać osobiście lub nadesłaniem zdania swego do tejże Izby, obowiązkiem jest: 1. Każde prawo, które po przejściu formalnem w Izbie Poselskiej do Senatu natychmiast przesłane być powinno, przyjąć lub wstrzymać do dalszej narodu deliberacji opisana w prawie większością głosów; przyjęcie moc i świętość prawa nadawać będzie; wstrzymanie zaś zawiesi tylko prawo do przyszłego ordynaryjnego sejmu, na którym gdy powtórna nastąpi zgoda, prawo zawieszone od Senatu przyjetem być musi. 2. Każda uchwale sejmowa w materiach wyżej wyliczonych, która Izba Poselska Senatowi przysłać natychmiast powinna, wraz z taż Izba poselska większością głosów decydować, a złączona Izb obydwóch większość, podług prawa opisana, będzie wyrokiem i wola Stanów.

Warujemy, iż senatorowie i ministrowie w obiektach sprawowania się z urzędowania swego bądź w Straży, bądź w komisyi, votum decisivum w sejmie nie będą mieli, i tylko zasiadać w ten czas w Senacie maja dla dania eksplikacji na zadanie Sejmu.

Sejm zawsze gotowym będzie. Prawodawczy i ordynaryjny rozpoczynać się ma co dwa lata, trwać zaś będzie podług opisu prawa o sejmach. Gotowy, w potrzebach nagłych zwołany, stanowić ma o tej tylko materii, do której zwolna będzie lub o potrzebie po czasie zwołania przypadłej. Prawo żadne na tym ordynaryjnym sejmie, na którym ustanowione było, znoszone być nie może. Komplet Sejmu składać się będzie z liczby osób, niższym prawem opisanej, tak w Izbie poselskiej, jako i w Izbie Senatorskiej.

Prawo o sejmikach, na terazniejszem Sejmie ustnowione, jako najistotniejsza zasadę wolności obywatelskiej, uroczyście zabezpieczamy.

Jako zaś prawodawstwo sprawowane być nie może przez wszystkich i naród wyręcza się w tej mierze przez reprezentantów czyli posłów swoich dobrowolnie wybranych, przeto stanowimy, iż posłowie na sejmikach obrani w prawodawstwie i ogólnych narodu potrzebach podług niniejszej konstytucji, uważani być maja jako reprezentanci całego narodu, będąc składem ufności powszechnej.

Wszystko i wszędzie większością głosów udecydowane być powinno. Przeto liberum veto, konfederacje wszelkiego gatunku i sejmy konfederackie, jako duchowi niniejszej konstytucji przeciwne, rząd obalające, społeczność niszczące, na zawsze znosimy.

Zapobiegając z jednej strony gwałtownym i częstym odmianom konstytucji narodowej, z drugiej, uznając potrzebę wydoskonalenia onej, po doświadczeniu jej skutków co do pomyślności publicznej, porę i czas rewizji i poprawę konstytucji co lat dwadzieścia piec naznaczamy, chcąc miec takowy sejm konstytucyjny ekstraordynaryjnym podług osobnego o nim prawa opisu.

VI. The Sejm, Or Legislative Authority

The sejm, or the assembled estates, shall be divided into two chambers: a chamber of deputies, and a chamber of senators presided over by the king. The chamber of deputies, as the image and repository of national sovereignty, shall be the temple of legislation. Therefore all bills shall be decided first in the chamber of deputies.

Primo. As to general laws, that is, constitutional, civil, criminal, or for the institution of perpetual taxes: in which matters proposals submitted by the throne to the provinces (wojewodztwa), lands (ziemie) and counties (powiaty) for discussion, and by instructions coming to the chamber, shall be taken for decision first.

Secundo. As to resolutions of the sejm, that is, temporary levies, degree of coin, contraction of public debt, ennoblement or other incidental rewards, disposition of public expenditures ordinary or extraordinary, war, peace, final ratification of treaties of alliance or trade, any diplomatic acts or agreements involving the law of nations, the quitting of executive magistracies, and like matters corresponding to the chief national needs, in which matters proposals from the throne shall come directly to the chamber of deputies and shall have priority of procedure.

The duty of the chamber of senators, comprising bishops, province chiefs (wojewodowie), castellans and ministers, presided over by the king, who is entitled to cast a votum (vote) of his own, and secondly to resolve paritas (an equal division of votes) either in person or by sending his judgment to that chamber, is: Primo. To adopt, or to retain for further deliberation by the nation, by the majority vote provided in law, every law which, having formally passed the chamber of deputies, shall be immediately forwarded to the senate; adoption shall confer the force and sanctity of law; retention shall only suspend a law suspended by the senate shall be adopted. Secundo. To decide every resolution of the sejm in the above enumerated matters, which the chamber of deputies shall immediately send to the senate, together with the chamber of deputies by majority vote, and the conjoint majority, provided by law, of both chambers shall be the judgment and will of the estates.

We stipulate that senators and ministers shall not have a votum decisivum (decisive vote) in the sejm in matters concerning their conduct of office, either in the guardianship or in commission, and at such time shall have a seat in the senate only to give explication upon demand of the sejm.

An ever ready sejm shall be legislative and ordinary. It shall begin every two yea and shall last as provided in the law on sejms. Ready, convoked in exigencies, it shall decide only about the matter in which it be convoked, or about an exigency befallen after it be convoked. No law shall be abrogated at the ordinary sejm at which it has been enacted. A sejm shall comprise the number of persons provided by lower law, both in the chamber of deputies and in the chamber of senators.

We solemnly confirm the law on regional sejms, enacted at the present sejm, as a most essential foundation of civil liberty.

Inasmuch as legislation cannot be conducted by all, and the nation to that end employs as agents its freely elected representatives, or deputies, we determine that deputies elected at the regional sejms shall, in legislation and in general needs of the nation, be considered under the present constitution as representatives of the entire nation, being the repository of the general confidence.

Everything, everywhere, shall be decided by majority vote; therefore we abolish forever the liberum veto, confederations of any kind, and confederate sejms, as being opposed to the spirit of the present constitution, subversive of government, and destructive of society.

Preventing on one hand abrupt and frequent changes of national constitution, and on the other recognizing the need to perfect it after experiencing its effect upon the public weal, we designate a season and time for review and amendment of the constitution every twenty-five yea, desiring that such a constitutional sejm be extraordinary in accordance with the provisions of a separate law.

VII. KRÓL, WŁADZA WYKONAWCZA

Żaden rząd najdoskonalszy bez dzielnej władzy wykonawczej stać nie może. Szczęśliwość narodów od praw sprawiedliwych, praw skutek od ich wykonania należy. Doświadczenie nauczyło, że zaniedbanie tej części rządu nieszczęściami napełniło Polskę. Zawarowawszy przeto wolnemu narodowi Polskiemu władzę praw sobie stanowienia i moc baczności nad wszelką wykonawczą władzą, oraz wybierania urzędników do magistratur, władze najwyższego wykonywania praw królowi w radzie jego oddajemy, która to rada Strażą Praw zwać się będzie. Władza wykonawcza do pilnowania praw i onych pełnienia ścisle jest obowiązana. Tam czynna z siebie będzie, gdzie prawa dozwalają, gdzie prawa potrzebują dozoru egzekucji, a nawet silnej pomocy. Posłuszeństwo należy się jej zawsze od wszystkich magistratur, moc przynaglenia nieposłuszne i zaniedbujące swe obowiązki magistratury w jej reku zostawiamy.

Władza wykonawcza nie będzie mogła praw stanowić ani tłumaczyć, podatków i poborów pod jakimkolwiek imieniem nakładać, długów publicznych zaciągać, rozkładu dochodów skarbowych przez Sejm zrobionego odmieniać, wojny wydawać, pokoju ani traktatu i żadnego aktu dyplomatycznego definitive zawierać. Wolno jej tylko będzie tymczasowe z zagranicznymi prowadzić negocjacje oraz tymczasowe i potoczne dla bezpieczeństwa i spokojności kraju wynikające potrzeby załatwiać, o których najbliższemu Zgromadzeniu sejmowemu donieść winna.

Tron polski elekcyjnym przez familie mieć na zawsze chcemy i stanowimy. Doznane klęski bezkrólewiów, periodycznie rząd wywracających, powinność ubezpieczenia losu każdego mieszkańca ziemi polskiej, i zamkniecie na zawsze drogi wpływom mocarstw zagranicznych, pamięć świetności i szczęścia Ojczyzny naszej za czasów familii ciągle panujących, potrzeba odwrócenia od ambicji tronu obcych, i możnych Polaków, zwrócenia do jednomyślnego wolności narodowej pielęgnowania, wskazały roztropności naszej oddanie tronu Polskiego prawem następstwa.

Stanowimy przeto, iż po życiu, jakiego nam dobroć Boska pozwoli, elektor dzisiejszy saski w Polszczę królować będzie. Dynastia przyszłych królów Polskich zacznie się na osobie Fryderyka Augusta, dzisiejszego elektora Saskiego, którego sukcesorom de lumbis z płci męskiej tron polski przeznaczamy.

Najstarszy syn króla panującego po ojcu na tron następować ma. Gdyby zaś dzisiejszy elektor Saski nie miał potomstwa płci męskiej, tedy mąż przez elektora, za zgodą Stanów zgromadzonych córce jego dobrany zaczynać ma linię następstwa płci męskiej do tronu Polskiego. Dlaczego Marię Augustę Nepomucenę, córkę elektora, za infantke deklarujemy, zachowując przy narodzie prawo, żadnej preskrypcji podpadać nie mogące, wybrania do tronu drugiego domu, po wygaśnięciu pierwszego.

Każdy król, wstępując na tron, wykona przysięgę Bogu i narodowi, na zachowanie konstytucji niniejszej, na pacta conventa [23], które ułożone będą dzisiejszym elektorem Saskim, jako przeznaczonym do tronu, i które tak jak dawne wiązać go będą.

Osoba króla jest święta i bezpieczna od wszystkiego; nic sam przez się nie czyniący, za nic w odpowiedzi narodowi być nie może; nie samowładcą, ale ojcem i głową narodu być powinien i tym go prawo i konstytucja niniejsza być uznaje i deklaruje. Dochody tak jak będą w paktach konwentach opisane i prerogatywy tronowi właściwe, niniejsza konstytucja dla przyszłego elekta zawarowane, tkniętemi być nie będą mogły.

Wszystkie acta publiczne, trybunały, sądy, magistratury, monety, stemple pod królewskim iść powinny imieniem. Król, któremu wszelka moc dobrze czynienia zostawiona być powinna, mieć będzie ius agratiandi na śmierć wskazanych, prócz in criminibus status. Do króla rozrządzenie najwyższe siłami zbrojnymi krajowymi w czasie wojny i nominowanie komendantów wojska należeć będzie, z wolną atoli ich odmianą za wolą narodu. Patentować oficerów i mianować urzędniki podług prawa niższego opisu, nominować biskupów i senatorów podług opisu tegoż prawa, oraz ministrów jako urzędników pierwszych władzy wykonawczej, jego będzie obowiązkiem.

Straż, czyli rada królewska, do dozoru, całości i egzekucyi praw królowi dodana, składać się będzie:

1-mo z prymasa, jako głowy duchowieństwa polskiego i jako prezesa Komisji Edukacyjnej, mogącego być wyręczonym w Straży przez pierwszego ex ordine biskupa, którzy rezolucyi podpisywać nie mogą;

2-do z pieciu ministrów, to jest ministra policji, ministra pieczęci, ministra belli, ministra skarbu, ministra pieczęci do spraw zagranicznych;

3-tio z dwóch sekretarzy, z których jeden protokół Straży, drugi protokół spraw zagranicznych trzymać będą, obydwa bez votum decydującego.

Następca tronu, z małoletności wyszedłszy i przysięgę na konstytucję wykonawszy, na wszystkich Straży posiedzeniach, lecz bez głosu przytomnym być może.

Marszalek sejmowy, jako na dwa lata wybrany, wchodzić będzie w liczbę zasiadających w Straży, bez wdawania się w jej rezolucje, jedynie dla zwołania Sejmu gotowego w takim zdarzeniu: gdyby on uznał w przypadkach, koniecznego zwołania Sejmu wymagających rzetelną potrzebę, a król go zwołać wzbraniał się; tedy tenże marszałek do posłów i senatorów wydać powinien listy okólne, zwołując onych na sejm gotowy i powody zwołania tego wyrażając. Przypadki zaś do koniecznego zwołania sejmu są tylko następujące:

1-mo w gwałtownej potrzebie do prawa narodu ściągającej się, a szczególniej w przypadku wojny ościennej;
2-do w przypadku wewnętrznego zamieszania grożącego rewolucyą kraju lub kolizją między magistraturami;
3-tio w widocznym powszechnego głodu niebezpieczeństwie;
4-to w osierociałym stanie Ojczyzny przez śmierć króla lub w niebezpiecznej jego chorobie.

Wszystkie rezolucje w Straży roztrząsane będą przez skład wyżej wspomniony, decyzja królewska po wysłuchanych wszystkich zdaniach przeważać powinna, aby jedna była w wykonaniu prawa wola. Przeto każda ze Straży rezolucya pod imieniem królewskim i z podpisem ręki jego wychodzić będzie. Powinna jednak być podpisana także przez jednego z ministrów zasiadających w Straży, i tak podpisana do posłuszenstwa wiązać będzie, i dopełniona być ma przez komisje lub przez jakiekolwiek magistratury wykonawcze, w tych jednak szczególnie materiach, które wyraźnie niniejszem prawem wyłączone nie są.

W przypadku, gdyby żaden z ministrów zasiadających decyzyi podpisać nie chciał, król odstąpi od tej decyzyi, a gdyby przy niej upierał się, marszałek sejmowy, w tym przypadku, upraszać będzie o zwołanie sejmu gotowego, i jeżeli król opóźniać będzie zwołanie, marszałek to wykonać powiniem.

Jako nominowanie wszystkich ministrów, tak i wezwanie z nich jednego od każdego administracyi wydziału do rady swojej, czyli Straży króla jest prawem. Wezwanie to ministra do zasiadania w Straży na lat dwa będzie z wolnym onego nadal przez króla potwierdzeniem.

Ministrowie do Straży wezwani w komisjach zasiadać nie mają. W przypadku zaś, gdyby większość dwóch trzecich części wotów sekretnych obydwóch Izb złączonych na Sejmie ministra bądź w Straży, bądź w urzędzie odmiany żądała, król natychmiast na jego miejsce innego nominować powinien.

Chcąc, aby Straż Praw narodowych obowiązana była do ścisłej odpowiedzi Narodowi za wszelkie onych przestępstwa, stanowimy, iż gdy ministrowie będą oskarżeni przez deputację, do egzaminowania ich czynności wyznaczona, o przestępstwo prawa, odpowiadać mają z osób i majątków swoich. W wszelkich takowych oskarżeniach Stany zgromadzone prostą większością wotów Izb złączonych odesłać obwinionych ministrów mają do sądów sejmowych po sprawiedliwe i wyrównające przestępstwu ich ukaranie, lub przy dowiedzionej niewinności od sprawy i kary uwolnienie.

Dla porządnego władzy wykonawczej dopełnienia, ustanawiamy oddzielne komisje, mające związek ze Straża i obowiązane do posłuszeństwa tejże Straży. Komisarze do nich wybierani będą przez sejm dla sprawowania urzędów swoich w przeciągu czasu prawem opisanego.
Komisje te są:

1-mo Edukacji;
2-do Policji;
3-tio Wojska;
4-to Skarbu.

Komisje porządkowe wojewódzkie, na tym sejmie ustanowione, równie do dozoru Straży należące, odbierać będą rozkazy przez wyżej wspomnione pośrednicze Komisye, respective co do obiektów każdej z nich władzy i obowiązków.

VII. The King, The Executive Authority

No government, be it the most perfect, can stand without strong executive authority. The happiness of the people depends upon just laws, the effect of the laws upon their execution. Experience teaches that neglect’ of this part of government has filled Poland with misfortunes. Therefore, having reserved unto the free Polish people the authority to make laws for itself and the poser to keep watch upon all executive authority, as well as to elect officials to magistracies, we confer the authority of supreme execution of the laws to the king in his council, which council shall be called the guardianship of the laws.

The executive authority is strictly bound to observe the laws ad to carry them out. It shall act of itself, the laws permitting, where the laws need supervision of execution, or even forceful aid. Obedience is owed to it always by all magistracies; we leave in ii had the power to press magistracies that be disobedient or remiss in their duties.

The executive, authority shall not enact or interpret laws, impose les or levies by any name, contract public debts, alter the distribution of treasury revenues established by the sejm, wage war, or definitive (definitively) conclude peace or treaties or any diplomatic act. It shall be free to conduct only interim negotiations with foreign states, ad to take, temporary and current measures requisite for the security and peace of the country, of which it shall inform the next assembly of the sejm.

We desire and determine that the throne of Poland shall be forever elective by families. Disastrous experience of interregnums periodically overturning the government, the obligation to safeguard every inhabitant of the Polish land, the sealing forever of avenue to the influences of foreign powers, the memory of the former grandeur and happiness of our country under continuously reigning families, the need to turn foreigners away from ambition for the throne, and to turn powerful Poles toward the single-minded cultivation of national liberty, having indicated to our prudence that the throne of Poland be passed on by right of succession. We determine, therefore, that following the life that Divine beneficence shall grant to us, the present-day elector of Saxony shall begin with the person of Frederick Augustus, present-day elector of Saxony, to whose male successors de lumbis (from the loins) we reserve the throne of Poland. Should the present-day elector of Saxony have no male issue, then the consort, with the consent of the assembled estates, selected by the elector for his daughter shall begin the male line of succession to the throne of Poland. Wherefore we declare Maria Augusta Nepomucena, daughter of the elector, to be infanta of Poland, reserving to the people the right, which shall be subject to no prescription, to elect another house to the throne after the expiration of the first.

Every king, when ascending the throne, shall execute an oath to God and to the nation, that he will preserve the present constitution and the pacta conventa that shall be drawn up with the present-day elector of Saxony, as destined to the throne, and which shall bind him as shall those of the past.

The person of the king is sacred and secure from everything. Doing nothing of himself, he shall be answerable for nothing to the nation. He shall not be autocrat but father and chief of the nation, and as such the present law and constitution deems and declares him to be. The incomes as they shalt be provided for in the pacta conventa, and the prerogatives proper to the throne as stipulated by the present constitution to the future elect, shall not be touched.

All public acts, tribunals, courts of law, magistracies, coin and stamps shall go under the king’s name. The king, to whom shall be left every power of beneficence, shall have ius agratiandi (the right to pardon) those sentenced to death, except in crlminibus stati’s (in crimes of state). To the king shall belong the supreme disposition of the country’s armed forces in wartime and the appointment of army commanders, howbeit with their free change by the will of the nation. It shall be his duty to commission officers and appoint officials pursuant to the provisions of lower law, to appoint bishops and senators pursuant to the provisions of that law, and ministers, as the prime officials of the executive authority.

The guardianship, or royal council, added to the king for supervision of the integrity and execution of the laws, shall comprise: primo the primate, as chief of the Polish clergy and as president of the educational commission, who may substitute for himself in the guardianship the first bishop ex ordine (in rank), neither of whom shall sign resolutions; secundo five ministers, to wit: a minister of police, a minister of the seal, a minister be Iii (of war), a minister of the treasury, and a minister of foreign affairs; tertio two secretaries, of whom one shall keep the protocol of the guardianship, the other the protocol of foreign affairs, both without a decisive votum.

The successor the throne, having emerged from minority and executed an oath to uphold the constitution, may be present at all sessions of the guardianship, but without a vote.

The marshal of the sejm, elected for two years, shall be of the number seated in the guardianship, without entering into their resolutions, solely in order to convoke a ready sejm in the event that he recognize in the cases requiring convocation of a ready sejm, a true need, and the king demur at convoking it, when said marshal shall issue to the deputies and senators circular letters convoking them to a ready sejm and stating the causes of its convocation. The only cases requiring convocation of a sejm are the following: Primo. In an exigency involving the law of nations, more particularly in the event of war hard by the borders. Secundo. In the event of internal disorder that threatens revolution in the country or collision between magistracies. Tertio. In evident danger, generally voiced. Quarto. In the country’s bereavement by death of the king, or in his dangerous illness. All resolutions in the guardianship shall be discussed by the above- mentioned body of persons, and the royal decision shall prevail after all opinions have been heard, that there be a single will in the execution of law; therefore every resolution from the guardianship shall issue under the king’s name and with the signature of his hand, but it shall also be signed by one of the ministers seated in the guardianship, and thus signed, it shall oblige obedience, and shall be carried out by the commissions or by any executive magistracies, but particularly in such matters as are not explicilly excluded by the present law. In the event that none of the seated ministers wish to sign the decision, the ting 1shall abandon the decision, but should he persist in it, the marshal of the sejm shall request convocation of the ready sejm; and if the king delay convocation, the marshal shall convoke it.

Even as to appointment of all ministers, so also is it the king’s right to summon one of them from every department of administration to his council, or guardianship. This summoning of a minister to sit in the guardianship shall be for two yea, as now with the king’s free confirmation of it. Ministers summoned to the guardianship shall not sit in commissions.

In the event that a two-third majority of secret votes of the two conjoint chambers of the sejm demand change of a minister either in the guardianship or in an office, the king shall immediately appoint another in his place.

Desiring that the guardianship of the national laws be bound to strict accountability to the nation for any and all its misdeeds, we determine that, when ministers be charged with breach of law by a deputation designated to examine their deeds, they shall answer in their own persons and property. In any such impeachments, the assembled estates shall by simple majority vote of the conjoint chambers send the inculpated ministers to sejm courts for their just punishment equaling the crime or, their innocence being demonstrated, their release from proceedings and punishment.

For the orderly carrying out of executive authority, we institute separate commissions, having connection with the guardianship and bound in obedience to the guardianship. Commissioners shall be elected to them by the sejm to carry on their offices for a time set by law. These commissions are: primo of education, secundo of police, tertio of the army, quarto of the treasury.

The provincial (wojewodzkie) commissions of order instituted at this sejm, also subject to the supervision of the guardianship, shall receive orders through the above-mentioned intermediary commissions, respective(ly) as to the objects of the authority and obligations of each of them.

VIII. WŁADZA SADOWNICZA

Władza sądownicza nie może być wykonywana ani przez władze prawodawczą, ani przez króla, lecz przez magistratury na ten koniec ustanowione i wybierane. Powinna zaś być tak do miejsc przywiązana, żeby każdy człowiek bliską dla siebie znalazł sprawiedliwość, żeby przestępny widział wszędzie groźną nad sobą rękę krajowego rządu.

1-mo Ustanawiamy przeto sądy pierwszej instancji dla każdego województwa, ziemi i powiatu, do których sędziowie wybierani będą na sejmikach. Sądy pierwszej instancji będą zawsze gotowe i czuwające na oddanie sprawiedliwości tym, którzy jej potrzebują. Od tych sądów iść będzie apelacja na trybunały główne, dla każdej prowincyi być mające, złożone również z osób na sejmikach wybranych. I te sądy tak pierwszej, jako i ostatniej instancji, będą sądami ziemiańskimi dla szlachty i wszystkich właścicielów ziemskich z kimkolwiek, in causis iuris de facti.

2-do Jurysdykcje zaś sądowe wszystkim miastom podług prawa Sejmu teraźniejszego o miastach wolnych królewskich, zabezpieczamy.

3-tio Sądy referendarskie dla każdej prowincyi osobne, mieć chcemy w sprawach włościan wolnych dawnymi prawami sądowi temu poddanych.

4-to Sądy zadworne, asesorskie, relacyjne i Kurlandzkie zachowujemy.

5-to Komisje wykonawcze będą miały sądy w sprawach, do swej administracji należących.

6-to Oprócz sądów w sprawach cywilnych i kryminalnych dla wszystkich stanów, będzie sąd najwyższy, sejmowy zwany, do którego przy otwarciu każdego sejmu wybrane będą osoby. Do tego sądu należeć będą występki przeciwko narodowi i królowi, czyli crimina status. Nowy codex praw cywilnych i kryminalnych przez wyznaczone przez Sejm osoby spisać rozkazujemy.

VIII. The Judicial Authority

The judicial authority shall not be carried out either by the legislative authority or by the king, but by magistracies instituted and elected to that end. And it shall be so bound to places, that every man shall find justice close by, that the criminal shall see everywhere over him the formidable hand of the national government.
We institute, therefore:

Primo. Courts of first instance for every province (wojewodztwo), land (ziemia) and country (powiat), to which judges shall be elected at regional sejms. The courts of first instance shall be ever ready and vigilant to render justice to those in need of it. From these courts, appeal shall go to chief tribunals for every province (prowincja), to be established, comprising also persons elected at regional sejms. And these courts, both of first and of last instances, shall be land courts (sady ziemskie) for the nobility and for all landowners in causis juris et facti (in matters of law and fact with anyone).

Secundo. We secure judicial jurisdictions to all cities, pursuant to the law of the present sejm on the free royal cities.

Tertio. We shall have separate referendary courts for each province (prowincja) in matters of free peasants under former laws subject to this curt.

Quarto. We preserve chancery, assessorial, relational and Kurlandian courts.

Quinto. The executive commissions shall have courts in matters pertinent to their administration.

Sexto. In addition to courts in civil and criminal matters for all the estates, there shall be a supreme court, called a sejm court, to which persons shall be elected at the opening of every sejm. To this court shall be subject crimes against the nation and the king, or crimina status (crimes of state).

We command that a new code of civil and criminal laws be drawn up by persons designated by the sejm.

IX. REGENCJA

Straż będzie oraz regencja, mając na czele królową albo w jej nieprzytomności prymasa. W tych trzech tylko przypadkach miejsce mieć może regencya:

1-mo w czasie maloletności króla;
2-do w czasie niemocy trwałe pomieszanie zmysłów sprawującej;
3-tio w przypadku, gdyby król był wzięty na wojnie.

Maloletność trwać tylko będzie do lat 18 zupełnych; a niemoc względem trwałego pomieszania zmysłów deklarowana być nie może, tylko przez Sejm gotowy większością wotów trzech części przeciwko czwartej Izb złączonych. W tych przeto trzech przypadkach prymas korony polskiej sejm natychmiast zwołać powinien, a gdyby prymas tę powinność zwłóczył, marszałek sejmowy listy okólne do posłów i senatorów wyda. Sejm gotowy urządzi kolej zasiadania ministrów w regencji i królowę do zastąpienia króla w obowiązkach jego umocuje.

A gdy król w pierwszym przypadku z małoletności wyjdzie, w drugim do zupełnego przyjdzie zdrowia, w trzecim z niewoli powróci, regencja rachunek z czynności swoich oddać mu powinna i odpowiadać narodowi za czas swego urzędowania tak, jak jest przepisano o Straży, na każdym ordynaryjnym Sejmie, z osób i majątków swoich

IX. Regency

The guardianship shall be also a regency, headed by the queen, or in her absence by the primate. A regency may have place in only three cases: Primo during the king’s minority. Secundo during an infirmity causing permanent mental alienation. Tertio in the event that the king be taken in war. Minority shall last only until eighteen years of age; and infirmity respecting permanent alienation shall not be declared except by a ready sejm, by majority vote of three parts against the fourth of the conjoint chambers. In these three cases, the primate of the Polish Crown shall immediately convoke the sejm, and if the primate be slow in this obligation, the marshal of the sejm shall issue circular letters to the deputies and senators. The ready sejm shall arrange the order of seating of the ministers in the regency and shall empower the queentotike the place of the king in his duties. And when the king in the first case emerge from minority, in the second come to complete health, in the third return from captivity, the regency shall tender him account of its deeds and answer to the nation for the time of its office, even as is prescribed of the guardianship at every ordinary sejm, in their own persons and property.

X. EDUKACJA DZIECI KRÓLEWSKICH

Synowie królewscy, których do następstwa tronu konstytucja przeznacza, są pierwszymi dziećmi Ojczyzny, przeto baczność o dobre ich wychowanie do narodu należy, bez uwłóczenia jednak prawom rodzicielskim. Za rządu królewskiego sam Król z Strażą i wyznaczonym od Stanów dozorcą edukacji królewiczów wychowaniem ich zatrudniać się będzie. Za rządu regencyi taż z wspomnionym dozorcą edukacje ich powierzona mieć sobie będzie. W obydwóch przypadkach dozorca od Stanów wyznaczony donosić winien na każdym ordynaryjnym Sejmie o edukacji i postępku królewiczów. Komisji zaś edukacyjnej powinności będzie podać układ instrukcji i edukacji synów królewskich do potwierdzenia sejmowi, a to, aby jednostajne w wychowaniu ich prawidła wpajały ciągle i wcześnie w umysły przyszłych następców tronu religię, miłość cnoty, Ojczyzny, wolności i konstytucji krajowej.

X. The Education Of Royal Sons

Royal sons, whom the constitution destines for succession to the throne, are the first sons of the nation, wherefore attention to their good education is a concern of the nation, without prejudice, however, to parental rights. Under the government of the king, the king himself, together with the guardianship and with a supervisor of the education of the king’s sons designated by the estates, shall see to their education. Under the government of a regency, the regency, together with the aforementioned supervisor, shall have the education of the king’s sons entrusted to them. In either case, the supervisor designated by the estates shall inform every ordinary sejm about the education and conduct of the royal sons for confirmation by the sejm, so that in their education uniform rules continually and early instill in the minds of future successors to the throne religion and love of virtue, country, liberty and the national constitution.

XI. SIŁA ZBROJNA NARODOWA

Naród winien jest sobie samemu obronę od napaści i dla przestrzegania całości swojej. Wszyscy przeto obywatele są obrońcami całości i swobód narodowych. Wojsko nic innego nie jest, tylko wyciągniętą siłą obronną i porządną z ogólnej siły narodu. Naród winien wojsku swemu nadgrodę i poważanie za to, iż się poświęca jedynie dla jego obrony. Wojsko winno narodowi strzeżenie granic i spokojności powszechnej, słowem winno być jego najsilniejszą tarczą. Aby przeznaczenia tego dopełniło nieomylnie, powinno zostawać ciągle pod posłuszeństwem władzy wykonawczej, stosownie do opisów prawa, powinno wykonać przysięgę na wierność narodowi i królowi i na obronę konstytucji narodowej. Użyte być więc wojsko narodowe może na ogólna kraju obronę, na strzeżenie fortec i granic, lub na pomoc prawu, gdyby kto egzekucji jego nie był posłusznym.

XI. National Armed Force

The nation bears a duty to its own defense from attack and for the safeguarding of its integrity. Therefore all citizens are defenders of the national integrity and liberties. The army is naught but a defensive force drawn and ordered from the general force of the nation. The nation owes reward and esteem to its army because the army dedicates itself solely to the nation’s defense. It is the army’s duty to protect the nation’s borders and general peace, in a word, to be its strongest shield. That it fulfill this destiny unfailingly, it shall remain always in obedience to the executive authority, in accordance with the provisions of law, and shall execute an oath of fidelity to the nation and to the king and to the defense of the national constitution. Thus the national army may be used for the general defense of the country, for the safeguarding of fortresses and borders, or in aid of law, if any not be obedient to its execution.

Sygnatariusze

Stanisław Nalecz Malachowski, referendarz wielki koronny, sejmowy i konfederacji prowincji koronnych marszałek.
Kazimierz książę Sapieha, generał artylerii litewskiej, marszałek konfederacji Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego.
Józef Korwin Kossakowski, biskup inflancki i Kurlandzki, następca koaudiutor biskupstwa wileńskiego, jako deputowany.
Antoni książę Jablonowski, kasztelan krakowski, deputat z Senatu Malej Polski.
Symeon Kazimierz Szydlowski, kasztelan tarnowski, deputowany z Senatu prowincji małopolskiej.
Franciszek Antoni na Kwilczu Kwilecki, kasztelan kaliski, deputowany do konstytucji z Senatu z prowincji wielkopolskiej.
Kazimierz Konstanty Plater, kasztelan generała trockiego, deputowany do konstytucji z Senatu Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego.
Walerian Stroynowski, podkomorzy buski, poseł wołyński, z Małopolski deputat do konstytucji.
Stanisław Kostka Potocki, poseł lubelski, deputowany do konstytucji z prowincji małopolskiej.
Jan Nepomucen Zboinski, poseł ziemi dobrzyńskiej, deputowany do konstytucji z prowincji wielkopolskiej.
Tomasz Nowowiejski, łowczy i poseł ziemi wyszogrodzkiej, deputowany do konstytucji.
Józef Radzicki, podkomorzy i poseł ziemi zakroczymskiej, deputowany do konstytucji z prowincji wielkopolskiej.
Józef Zabiello, poseł z Księstwa Żmudzkiego, deputowany do konstytucji.
Jacek Puttkamer, poseł województwa mińskiego, deputowany do konstytucji z prowincji Wielkiego Księstwa Litewskiego

Translated from Polish by Christopher Kasparek, based on the Polish text published in Piotrków, Poland, in 1915. Translation originally published in PNCC Studies, Vol. 3 (1982), pp. 45-58.

A Concise History of Polish Theater from the 11th to the 20th Centuries

Available from The Edwin Mellen Press or at Amazon

A preface from Daniel Gerould, Lucille Lortel Distinguished Professor of Theater and Comparative Literature, Graduate School, City University of New York

Theater is culturally bound to its own time and place in immediate ways that poetry, painting, and music are not. Above all, theater is performance before a live audience that cannot be reproduced or recreated, and thus of all the arts, acting, along with dance, is the most ephemeral and the hardest to capture in words. These are the inherent difficulties in telling the story of any theater, including that of one’s own native land. If, in addition, that theater is a foreign one with its own peculiar traditions embedded in unfamiliar customs and manners, the task is all the more daunting, especially if the country in question has a strange and troubled past that is not easy for outsiders to grasp.

All this, by way of an introduction, may serve to explain, but not excuse the fact, that until now no one has attempted to write a history of Polish theater for English-speaking readers. The case of Poland is a curious one; Polish theater had played an extraordinarily important role in the country’s history, but few people in the West know anything about its traditions, so alien are they to our own experience. In the Anglo-American world we are accustomed to think of theater simply as entertainment, or at best as an art form that provides aesthetic pleasure and, from time to time, food for thought.

Now imagine a theater, that, on the contrary, is regarded as the repository of moral values and the guardian of national identity, and envisage a land in which playwrights, actors, directors, and stage designers have been expected to serve and even sacrifice themselves as prophets and sages. Such a country is Poland where the life blood of theater flows from a current of romantic nationalism that has no real counterpart in the Anglo-American tradition.

Whoever would convey this unusual story to an English-speaking audience must have many qualifications. First of all, to win and hold the reader’s attention, the author must have an insider’s intimate knowledge of the subject and at the same time a profound understanding of the audience for whom the book is intended.

Kazimierz Braun has unusual qualifications for the task. As a director, manager, theater artist, author, scholar, and teacher, he has been totally involved with Polish theater throughout his career─in Poland, in America and Europe, and as a cultural ambassador between East and West. Wherever he has been, he has created Polish theater, studied it, taught it, and written about it. Only a lifetime commitment and passionate love for theater in all its aspects can give such an authoritative grasp of the subject.

Passion, a vivid eye for detail, and a bold thesis animate A Concise History of Polish Theater from the 11th to the 20th Centuries. Braun’s history is concise, but it is also comprehensive, encompassing a splendidly variegated range of interests, including the history of theater buildings, the theatrical history of the cities, the lives not only of performers but also of audiences─who they are, where they sit, how they react. Everything connected with actors stirs Braun’s intellectual curiosity and inspires his writing: their wages, costumes, manners and morals, touring, strikes and boycotts, and above all their training and programs of study at theater schools.

Now for the bold thesis, thread that unites all the different elements with Braun’s history is the national function of theater in Poland, its mission as a resilient force for survival and salvation in a centuries-long battle for freedom and independence. In this struggle Polish theater has taken the most diverse shapes and utilized the greatest variety of spaces indoors and out─ ranging from vast pageants and patriotic manifestations in public places to a single actor reciting poetry for a few listeners in a small room of an apartment. In Poland clandestine theater─something unknown in America─has had a long and important history as a response to censorship and persecution. Performance in homes and churches figures prominently in A Concise History of Polish Theater.

It is in this context that Braun himself enters the story as a child during the Second World War when he attended one man shows in his family home. At such clandestine performances Braun first comes to understand theater as communion and sacerdotal sacrifice, subordinated to higher spiritual values. The author now is a witness to the events he describes and soon will become a major player; he is a part of the history that he recounts.

The story that Braun tells of post World War II Polish theater under communism is now seen close up with vivid immediacy. We watch as the managers, directors, and performers confront moral dilemmas and adopt different stances as the regime attempts to neutralize the avant-garde and manipulate theater artists through bribes and threats. Personal participation enables Braun to give his narrative a truly dramatic quality. Theater was a crucial battlefield in the struggle of Poland with oppressive totalitarianism. All aspects of life were infected, and theater was constantly at risk of being compromised and corrupted. In a system that sought for total control, every avant-garde experiment or innovation became an anti-regime provocation.

Kazimierz Braun has a special feeling for actors and actresses and the rare ability to describe vividly their stage presence and bearing, their vocal and gestural language. His favorites among Polish theater artists are the performers. Above all, he admires Helena Modjeska and Halina Mikolajska, Juliusz Osterwa and Mieczysław Kotlarczyk, because they were noble and heroic artists who joined art to ethics. For Osterwa (who was a model for Grotowski), acting was a sacrifice enacted before spectators as witnesses to the sacred act. Osterwa performed The Constant Prince 2000 times, in 200 different locales, before 400,000. Braun admires artists who show personal courage and integrity, take political stands in opposing the regime, hastening the moral transformation of the public and the historical transformation of the nation. Braun eloquently commemorates victims and pays tribute to those whose careers have been destroyed by the regime.

It is no wonder that at the end of his narrative, once communism has been overthrown, Braun is troubled by the desire on the part of some of the younger generation of artists to forget the patriotic and national function of theater. Such a loss of cultural memory could only be an impoverishment.

But what is ultimately striking at the end of this exciting one-thousand-year history is that a theater as intensely national as that of Poland has been so influential in the twentieth century. Braun’s book serves as a convincing explanation of how Polish traditions have produced such a large number of artists and playwrights who have become major creators of modern theater. Kazimierz Braun tells supremely well the fascinating story of a little known national theater, once largely closed upon itself, that in the past fifty years has transformed itself into a confident outward-looking tradition at the forefront of world theater.

Introduction

Poland received Christianity in the Latin rite from the West in A.D. 966. The very first liturgical drama was recorded in Latin in England about A.D. 970. Thus, almost at the same time, Poland entered the family of Western Christian nations and Western culture gave the theater, forgotten or suppressed for about five centuries, a fresh start. Since the 11th century until today, theater in Poland and in the whole of Western culture has been developing at a similar pace.

From its early liturgical beginnings until the Enlightenment, Polish theater followed general European patterns. At the end of the 18th century, it began to produce its own artistic and institutional forms. In the 19th century, it perfected them, to develop mature and original works in the 20th century.

Throughout its whole history, Polish theater was both a mirror of and an active participant in the history of the Polish nation. The pressure of history, which always and everywhere conditions theater life, was especially strongly felt in Poland and influenced all aspects of theater. We can say that the history of Polish theater is an expression of the history of the Polish nation, and that the history of the Polish nation is imprinted in the history of the Polish theater.

In the Middle Ages (circa 11th─14th centuries) Poland was laboring to find its place in European Christian civilization. Its territory enlarged and its population multiplied. Towns were laid out and churches built. Administrative, judicial, and educational institutions took shape. Though not without setbacks and defeats, Poland was emerging as the Eastern center of Western culture. Theater was establishing its niche in the life of the nation, at first within the realm of religious practices, then as a part of academic curricula, and finally as secular, courtly and folk entertainment.

In the 15th century Poland became an active player in the Renaissance revolution. The union of Poland and Lithuania, the “Commonwealth of Two Nations,” was one of the principal European powers. Within its borders Poles, Lithuanians, Byelorussians, Ukrainians, Jews, Germans, Czechs, Slovaks, Russians, Hungarians, Tartars, and other minorities lived and peacefully cooperated. The foundations of a democratic system based on multilayered elections, including the election of the king, were in place. The 16th century saw the zenith of that sociopolitical formation, the oldest democracy in modern Europe, characterized by political stability, military strength, economic prosperity, intellectual growth, and blossoming arts, including remarkable theater works.

The gradual fall of the Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania in the 17th and 18th centuries was a result of both the internal decay and the intrusion of external forces. The Polish version of democracy did not produce strong state institutions; rather, the country sank into anarchy, weakened both politically and militarily. At the same time, Poland’s neighbors were building absolute systems of central governments based on professional bureaucracies, armies, and police. The awakening of the nation and an energetic reform movement brought forth brilliant fruit: the modern, democratic Constitution of the Third of May 1791, the third document of this kind after the American Constitution (1787) and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789). During the time of Poland’s decline, theater had gradually lost contact with other European centers and waned into provincialism. Within the context of the reforms, however, it rejuvenated, and quickly caught up with the rest of Europe. Poland’s great achievement was the creation of The National Theater (1765), a public, state institution, one of the first such in the world. The rescue efforts came too late. Poland lost its independence in three consecutive partitions (1772, 1793, and 1795) and its territory was divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Fighting desperately to the end in the insurrection led by Thaddeus Kościuszko (1794) Poland did not defend its freedom. The First Polish Republic vanished politically. Yet, its culture, including language, religion, and the arts saved Poland by saving memory and preserving hope. Indeed, culture, in which theater was one of the leading forces, allowed the Polish nation to survive.

During the 123 years of foreign rule, theater actively participated in the Polish struggles for freedom. A series of uprisings in 1830, 1846, and 1863 did not change the situation, but kept the national identity alive. Art was the nation’s conscience, spirit, and sanctuary; theater was its heart. The international success of two Polish actors testified to the high level of Polish theater of the time: Helena Modjeska became a star in America and Bogumił Dawison conquered the German stages. Toward the end of the 19th century, Polish theater artists began to participate in, and in some areas to lead, the European avant-garde movements; Stanislaw Wyspiański became one of the first modern “total theater artists.”

Polish contributions of blood, military efforts, and diplomatic offensives during World War I, combined with the simultaneous collapse of all three of its partitioners (Russia, Germany, and Austria), resulted in the restoration of Polish sovereignty in 1918, which was defended in the victorious war against Bolshevik Russia in 1920.

The Second Polish Republic (1918-1939) was again a free and independent state, fulfilling the dreams of many generations, yet, tormented by social and political conflicts, economically and militarily frail. Theater thrived in the two inter-war decades. Stanislaw Ignacy Witkiewicz was a precursor of the “theater of the absurd” on a universal scale; Juliusz Osterwa’s acting reforms were parallel to those of Konstantin Stanislavsky; and Leon Schiller’s directorial masterpieces were comparable to those of the best European directors such as Vsevolod Meyerhold or Erwin Piscator.

In 1939, the Fourth Partition of Poland between two totalitarian regimes, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, put the life of the nation under mortal threat of annihilation. Fifty years of new captivity followed. The Nazi and Soviet occupations (1939-1945) were succeeded by unwanted Communist rule (1945-1989). During that time theater was one of the major energies helping the nation to survive, maintain its identity, and resist the totalitarian system. The most rigid Stalinist repression (1945-1956) suppressed theater creativity, but after the relative loosening of the Communist grip in 1956, theater revitalized and started to produce great, powerful, innovative, and imaginative works. Polish directors, as well as companies, were allowed to travel abroad and revealed to the world their astonishing artistry. They opened new avenues for theater experiments in the world. Among the most celebrated were: Jerzy Grotowski and his Lab Theater, Tadeusz Kantor and his Cricot 2 Theater, and Włodzimierz Staniewski with his Gardzienice Association.

The constant and unyielding opposition of the nation to the totalitarian regime resulted in uprisings, revolts, and strikes in 1956, 1968, 1970, and 1980. Finally, the mass movement of Solidarity brought Communism down. Poland, though devastated economically and morally, emerged again as an independent, free country in 1989. The theater of the Third Polish Republic was faced with the challenge of finding its proper place in a new political, social, and economic system. As I write these words, this process is under way.

GENERAL TIMELINE OF THE HISTORY OF POLISH THEATER

 

950

 

Baptism
of Poland, 966
The Piast Dynasty

1000

 

 

1050

Origins of Medieval Theater

 

1100

 

 

1150

Liturgical Drama

 

1200

 

 

1250

Nativity Plays

 

1300

Passion Plays

Miracle Plays

Kazimierz the Great

1350

Morality Plays

The
Jagiellonian Dynasty

Union of
Poland and Lithuania

1400

Secular Theater

 

1450

 

 

1500

Renaissance Theater

Mystery Plays

The
Commonwealth of Two Nations

1550

Kochanowski

Educational Theater

 

1600

Baroque Theater

 

1650

Court Opera Productions

 

1700

Enlightenment Theater

 

1750

The
National Theater, 1765

Three
Partitions: 1772, 1793, 1795
Loss of Independence, 1795
Russian, Prussian, Austrian Rule 1795-1918

1800

Bogusławski

Romantic Drama

 

1850

 

The Second Republic, 1918-1939

German
and Soviet Rule, 1939-1945

1900

Modjeska

Wyspiański

Osterwa

Communist Rule, 1945-1989

1950

Kantor

Grotowski

The Third Republic, 1989

2000

Staniewski

Afterword by Clive Barker, Editor New Theater Quarterly, London, England

The existence of the Polish theater has been inextricably linked to the history of Poland. Perhaps this is why so little is known about it. The history of Poland has been characterized by a continual struggle for existence against occupation and division, which has deflected attention away from the integral Polish identity and culture. Reflecting and participating in this process, the history of the Polish theater has been characterized by a lifelong struggle for existence, against cultural suppression, censorship, and proscription. This struggle has been an integral part of the larger struggle for national, cultural, and political liberation. The theater has developed strategies for disguise, alternative forms, and sustained opposition. At times, these strategies have had to be carried out in exile, as in the great Romantic period of Polish Drama. At other times at home they have taken the form of subtle games with authority to circumvent prohibition by the use of allusion and metaphor. The links between theatrical activity and nationalism has been a source of pride to those who have participated on both sides of the equation, which is why the Polish theater continually acknowledges a debt to its past and draws so heavily on its past for renewal and strength.

In constructing the concise history of the Polish theater from its early medieval origins to the present post-totalitarian situation, Kazimierz Braun has taken full recognition of the interweaving of theater, political history, and personal inspiration and ingenuity. It is a history of frustration and accommodation, and of courage and commitment.

Those of us who have come lately to an acquaintance with the Polish theater as the experimental theater of Kantor and Grotowski and the political groups, such as the Eighth Day Theater and Akademia Ruchu (the Movement Academy), as well as their current successors in Gardzienice and Teatr Biuro Podróży (the Theater Travel Office), we might be grateful that the struggle for expression, against repressive and philistine repression, has taken such rich and varied forms and became available to us, as tensions eased, and the western festivals began to offer opportunities to see and appreciate the work.

The present book, because it charts the integration of art and political nationalism in detail can be read as more than one volume. It is, in intention, a concise history of Polish theater. Inevitably, however, it is also a history of Polish national struggle. Inevitably, because of the geographical position of Poland, it is also a history of a neglected aspects of European theater history, as well as that history viewed from a fresh viewpoint, with Polish eyes. Either way, there is much to inform and stimulate, to move to pity and delight the reader.

About the author:

Kazimierz Braun is a director, writer, playwright, and scholar. He received his Master of Letters degree at Poznań University, Poland, an MFA in Directing at Warsaw Theater Academy, PhD in Philosophy at Poznań University, and PhD in Theater at Wrocław University. He was director, artistic director, and manager at theaters in Poland, and he has taught at the universities and schools of drama in Poland and the United States. He also directed plays for television. He published 31 books on theater history, novels, poetry, collections of essays, and plays. His most memorable productions include: Birth Rate by Rozewicz, Anna Livia based on Joyce, and The Plague based on Camus in Wrocław, Poland; The Old Woman Broods by Rozewicz in Dublin, Ireland; Rhinoceros by Ionesco at The Guthrie, in Minneapolis; A Man for All Seasons by Bolt, in Buffalo; and Dummies Ball by Jasienski at SUNY Buffalo. He has also directed plays by Shakespeare, Moliere, Brecht, Pirandello, and the Polish classical and modern authors. Recipient of several artistic and scholarly awards, including the Guggenheim and the Fulbright, Braun was characterized by Thomas Leff as “an especially creative force” in Polish theater, and by Richard Burns as “one of the leading world directors.” Currently, Kazimierz Braun is Professor at the State University of New York at Buffalo.

All information herein is © 2003 by Kazimierz Braun and is made available by permission of the author. This information may not be duplicated, republished, reprinted, retransmitted, or used without the express written consent of the author.

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